The Advantages Of Using DFIG

The Advantages Of Using DFIG In addition to its stator, the DFIGs rotor is also connected to the grid using a power converter (Picture 3). This type is very common for wind turbines as it offers certain advantages compared to other types: It can operate like a synchronous generator and at variable speed, although its stator is directly connected to the grid. The converter can adequately control the voltage (phase and magnitude) that is applied to the rotor and as a consequence control the magnetic fields frequency or speed. It actually forms an AC excitation with a variable frequency, just like the DC excitation used in synchronous generators. This operation gives the DFIG the benefits of a synchronous generator. These benefits include the separate control of reactive and active power, or the control of the wind turbines power factor. The DFIG wind turbines are better than other designs in terms of grid compatibility. It can operate at variable speed, sub- or super synchronously. The optimum speed can be chosen by adjusting the frequency and phase of the voltage that is applied to the rotor, and is such that maximum power is obtained by the wind, in different wind speeds. Since it can operate as synchronous generator, a major advantage of large DFIG wind turbines is that they can contribute to the systems stability after a fault occurs. However, this relies heavily on the control options given by the power converter. Moreover, A DFIG wind turbine can generate reactive power even when the mechanical part is not operating and in not delivering active power. Relative to other variable speed generators, DFIGs power converter is rated at lower power (i.e. about 30% of the wind turbines rated power), since only part of the total power delivered by the wind turbine is transferred through the converter. This makes the wind turbine cheaper and lighter. The power mentioned above, can be either delivered by the rotor (when the turbine rotates with a higher than the synchronous speed), or absorbed (when its speed is below the sync speed). This double mode gives the DFIG the ability to operate at speeds below or above even by 50% of the sync speed, although actually lower variations are chosen. Compared to other generators with variable speed, which use external rotor resistances to allow variable speed, DFIG are more energy efficient, since there is little power dissipated in the converter. DFIG can be accurately controlled due to the fact that the power converter can adjust both the magnitude and phase of the voltage applied to the rotor. This attribute, combined with pitch-control in wind turbines offers the operator more accurate power control, especially in high winds where high power output can cause severe damage to the equipment. Finally DFIG shares the benefits of synchronous and inductive generators regarding its contribution to power systems stability. Appropriate control can improve the damping of power variations in the system, without compromising voltage control. +voltage control Picture 1 Active Management in the distribution network [4], [5], [6] The dispersed nature of renewable resources necessitates their connection at the distribution network, which was designed in order to convey power from high to low voltage. Now, with the introduction of renewable electricity sources, the power can follow any direction, affecting the power and voltage quality as well as the security of the system. Therefore considerable amounts of money should be spent for their upgrade, if the optimum renewable potential is to be achieved. Another, less expensive approach is the transition from the networks traditional passive operation to their active management. Under active management approach, new control and communication technologies are incorporated into the system and allow the operator to control in real time the voltage, the power flows and even the fault levels. The main options under active management are: Power flow management The risks regarding the network power flows must be sufficiently eliminated. The possibility of the distributed generators to deliver power above the systems ratings-capacity can significantly threat the systems operation. This is a serious issue, especially in case of a circuit outage. The power flow management protects the systems parts taking into account their nominal capacity. Voltage control The voltage at a bus is affected by the real and reactive power on that bus as well as the R and X values of the line. The voltage change at that bus is approximately equal to. The most significant issue accruing from the introduction of distributed generators at the distribution networks is the voltage rise at the connected bus. The operator can choose appropriate R and X values but this would require an expensive network upgrade. The control of P and Q is a less expensive option, and this is why it is preferred. The main actions usually taken are: On-load transformer tapping: The operator might reduce/increase the voltage at the primary substation reducing/increasing all the subsequent voltages. Nevertheless, in case of reducing the voltage, a possible generator disconnection might drive the voltage below its allowable limit. Power factor or/and voltage control: see question 4 Reactive power compensation: Appropriate devices (capacitor banks, STACOM etc) can be connected on critical buses, so that they deliver/absorb reactive power and fix the voltage profile. Generation curtailment: another way to mitigate a voltage rise, would be to curtail real power generation from the distributed generators. However, this sets a significant constraint in the renewable energy that can be exploited. Fault level management : see below Load management Reducing or shifting adjustable loads can alleviate the pressure on the networks operation, especially in case of very low renewable generation. Power quality management The operator exploits various capabilities at the generators, loads or other special devices to maintain the powers high quality in terms of harmonics, voltage disturbances etc. Power Factor vs Voltage Control [7], [8], [9] The dominant negative impact of connecting generators in the distribution network is the distortion of the voltage profile. The simplest, but at the same time the most expensive, solution for this problem is the upgrade of the local grid. However, there are more efficient ways, (borrowed by the operation of the transmission networks) that could allow for larger DG penetration without big distortions at the voltage profile. Two of them, concerning the generators operation, are: Power factor control: the generator operates at a constant power factor. The reactive follows the real power output so that their ratio remains constant. This kind of operation was required by the distribution network operator (DNO) in the context of the fit and forget rationale, with which all the low voltage networks were initially designed. The major advantage of this method is that it does not disrupt the operation of other regulation devices, such as OLTC. However, it may have a negative impact on the voltage at the connected bus, since it tends to contribute to the voltage variation which is influenced by the changes in power flows. As a consequence, this approach limits the total generation capacity that can be connected on the network. Voltage control: the generator adjusts its reactive power output so that the voltage at the connection bus remains within the allowable limits. This adjustment is done according to the real power output and the voltage drop or rise occurring at the bus. Obviously, the generators power factor is not constant anymore, although an upper and a lower limit would normally apply. The DNO are not very keen on allowing generators to operate in that way, since this operation could considerably affect the operation of other voltage regulation devices, such as OLTC transformers. Moreover, if a small generator tries to correct a high voltage change, it might need to set its reactive power output at a critical high or low level. This sort of dangerous operation close to the thermal or overcurrent limits entails a significant increase in the maintenance cost, or even worse, it can activate the protections and cause a sudden trip. A combination of the two approaches described above is considered the best solution regarding the optimum operation of a distributed generator. The main idea is that the generator operates with a constant power factor until the point where the voltage at the connected bus reaches the upper or lower allowable limit. At this point, the power factor control is deactivated, letting the generator to adjust its reactive power output and fix the voltage. Again, the power factor must be kept within its the allowable limits. When the voltage returns within its limits, the power factor control is reactivated. The consequences of new DG capacity on network fault levels and protection [4] The connection of distributed generation, using either synchronous or inductive generators, causes an increase in the systems fault levels, owing to the additional generation that could feed a potential fault current. This is especially the case at the very edges and weak parts of the distribution network, where the renewable generators are usually connected. The new fault levels might exceed the rating of the existing protections. Such an implication could cause significant damage to the protection equipment and set the systems security at high risk or ultimately incur supply interruptions. But most importantly could set personnels life in to severe danger. Therefore, every time a new distributed generator is connected, the fault levels must be re-examined and wherever is deemed necessary, protections must be upgraded. In some cases it might be necessary to upgrade the respective part of the network (reduce the R and X values new lines or/and transformers), which would usually requ ire significant amount of money. Nonetheless, in the context of the active management operation of the distribution network, the operator can take some alternative measures: Advanced converter technology: the use of advanced power inverters, makes a generators contribution to the fault current much lower. The more advanced a converter, the higher its cost. Network reconfiguration: changing the topology of the network could change the fault level at some buses. This operation is already available in most of the networks for maintenance purposes. Is Limiter: a device that can instantly increase the systems impedance (lower fault level) in case of an incident, but it needs replacement after each use. Sequential switching: the contribution at the fault current by one or a team of distributed generators can be isolated in case of a fault in a different section. The need for active power balancing in networks with high penetration of renewable energy resources In order for the frequency of a system to be maintained, the total real power generation must always be equal to the total real power load and losses. A distortion of this balance could cause a frequency deviation beyond the allowable limits and hence, damage the equipment and the loads. Therefore, it is of major importance that the system operator must always retain the active power balance. Most of the prevailing renewable energy resources, such as wind or solar, have an intermittent behaviour and their output relies on the weather/climate conditions and hence, cannot be controlled. Although there were significant advances in the weather forecasting, errors are still present. Moreover, any sudden incidents that could trip a big part of the total generation (not only renewable) could also contribute to a real power unbalance. Adding to this the fact that the demand can also vary, the large penetration of renewable resources increases considerably the risk for the systems stability. The main techniques that a system operator can use in order to maintain the power balance are: Storage: Large (compressed air, hydro-pump storage, flywheels etc) or smaller (EV etc) storage facilities can contribute to the real power balancing. They can store energy when the renewable generation exceeds the total load and deliver it back to the network when the total generation is not sufficient to meet the demand. Some storage technologies are better than others in terms of their performance, however all of them are quite capable of quickly adjusting their output to support the systems frequency. Nonetheless, most of the storage technologies are still very expensive. Pump storage, a cheaper option, is naturally constrained, while the massive introduction of EV is not feasible in the foreseeable future. Demand Side Management: The active power equation has two sides. Available for adjusting or shifting demand could adequately contribute to the systems stability when the renewable sources are lower than expected, if appropriate incentives are given to the consumers. Dispatchable units: The unbalances risk that might emerge by the large penetration of renewable energy resources could be offset by large and fast, in terms of start-up and output, generating units, such as hydro or gas plants. However, hydro plants are naturally constrained and gas power plants are still causing carbon emissions, albeit fewer than the coal generators. Interconnections: Interconnections between large electricity grids could significantly reduce the risk associated with the large penetration of renewable energy sources. Each system could either absorb or deliver real power from its counterpart depending on its total generation and demand. DC interconnections are more common, since they can transfer more real power and isolate the two systems in terms of frequency control, although they are more expensive than conventional AC interconnections.

Decolonization – Congo

Why was process of decolonization peaceful in some countries and violent in others? (Before Independence) Brief historical background of colonization? (Historical Context) * What ignited calls for independence from colonial rule in __________ (your country)? A: Elections were held in rural areas(small cities) for reform and democratization of local government. 1958 was a year of vigorous political discussion at issues of society in Belgian Congo. The whole turning point of their advocacy for independence was during January 4-6 in 1959. In January 4, a riot broke out in Leopoldville due to the fact that an Abako meeting had been banned.This abrupt disorder for two days as European shops were broken and burned with over 40 people killed. The administration had political concession meaning that Belgium handed over independence to Congo. On January 13, the administration released a statement that they would slowly change into independence. The nationalist urged the colonial government to have an early date for independence. From this statement, issues about the independence of Congo sprang quickly. Political parties made huge promises that were illogical in order to gain favor of the people.Some parties requested for a faster date while others thought of holding the situation slowly. The government slowly began to lose control of rural areas. The government feared of catastrophe, decided to decolonize as quick as possible. The Congolese leaders aimed for a five-year transition to independence but the Belgians enforced that the date of independence would be of 30 June 1960. According to The Making of Modern Africa, The first national elections held in May was looked as a disaster. After the end of World War 2, the Congo was able to participate in political issues. What methods did the â€Å"nationalists† use to achieve independence? To what extent were these methods effective? How did the colonial nation respond to the effort of the nationalists? A: Patrice L umumba launched THE FIRST NATIONWIDE POLITICAL PARTY, the Congo National Movement in 1958. They caused outrages in order to erupt instability to the country. Huge riots were caused by the hunger for independence by the people of Congo. The Belgian authorities prohibited a political/cultural party named ‘ABAKO’ which was slowly gaining power in the lower part of Congo.This led to riots for a span of three days and the Belgian government announced that they would put more Congolese into the government (for moderate nationalists) at a small scale in hopes of satisfying the demands. (Made a promise of eventual independence to extreme nationalists). But suddenly there was a surge of political activity. The nationalist’s demand soon grew as fifty political parties were registered competing and Belgian Congo was beyond control of the Belgian administration. * When did _________ (your country) achieve independence? Who ended up in power? Transition) A: The Republic of Co ngo achieved independence on June 30, 1960. From January 18-27, 1960, an event known as the ‘The Roundtable Conference’ was held in Brussels. Different Congolese parties attended the meeting to discuss the transition into independence. There were two pivotal leaders, Joseph Kasa-Vubu as President and Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister. To what extent were problems facing newly independent countries a legacy of colonial rule? * What was the condition of the country upon independence? (Identify problems) A: Coming from colonial rule, the Congolese had minimal knowledge to manage a huge country.Tribal leaders had more power than the government, which led them to have an unstable state. After the departure of the Belgium administration, there were barely any bureaucrats left in the country. The first Congolese graduate ever was only in 1956. The country was at a very unstable state with the power mostly to individual tribes separated from other tribes as well. (No unity) * W ere the problems a result of the colonial rulers? (Was it the fault of the colonial power? ) A: The Belgians considered Congo as a child meaning that both countries acted as a ‘parent and child’ relationship.This is called paternalism. The Belgians mainly supervised Congo and the Congo had no part in legislation. The Congolese only collected tax from the citizens. How could a child start working if he/she hasn’t had any education. This was the kind of situation in between Belgium and Congo. What ways did the Cold War complicate the process of  decolonization and/or post-independence? * Did ideology or the US/USSR conflict play a role in the process to achieve independence OR create problems for countries after they achieved independence? (If so, how significant? A: The Congo Crisis was a period of disorder from 1960 – 1966. The Katanga province threatened to leave Congo because the Belgians were interested in business and there were over 6000 Belgian tro ops with most of the European population under the leadership of Moise Tshombe. The province was declared as the State of Katanga in July 11 1960. Patrice Lumumba went to Soviet Union for troops to enforce the Katanga province. Feeling afraid, President Kasa-Vubu requested help from the United States that turns this into a proxy war as well. The US saw this attempt to spread their ideology in sub-Saharan Africa.The U. S. therefore wanted to change the leader in The Republic of Congo. It’s kind of odd how Patrice Lumumba, the prime minister and President Kasa-Vubu who were both in the same parties already had arguments as soon as Congo gained their independence. Source Evaluation: http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/59224/Belgian-Congo First and foremost, this website is trustworthy due to their long history of releasing books with accurate facts. This huge company consists of about 100 editors and 4,4000 contributors who are professors, being an expert at their respec tive subjects.It is also regarded as one of the most academic encyclopedias of the English language. It has also received numerous awards meaning its value is high. This is a secondary source, which obtained sources from contributors and re-word. The purpose of this article is simply to inform everyone without any intent to persuade or convince a person as the audience is not targeted as well. The limitations in this article is unclear, coming from a website from an anonymous author without his nationality is hard to determine whether this article I biased or not.But this website is trustworthy enough not to input biased opinions. A historian would use this comfortably because Britannica is one of the most popular websites used by millions of people. â€Å"Belgian Congo (historical Region, Africa). † Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n. d. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . Source List: â€Å"Africa: Belgian Colonies – HISTORY OF BELGIAN COLONIZATION, THE ADM INISTRATION OF CONGO BY THE BELGIANS (1908-1960). † Africa: Belgian Colonies. N. p. n. d. Web. 02 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Belgian Congo (historical Region, Africa). † Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n. d. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Belgian Congo. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 Feb. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Congo Crisis. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 May 2012. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Decolonization of Africa. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Oct. 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Encyclop? dia Britannica. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 May 2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012. . As a class, we will be holding a seminar to discuss the questions above. In order to discuss these questions, you need to know how the process of decolonization worked in specific countries.As a group, choose one of the countries from the following list and begin research into the independence, decolonization, and colonial le gacy of that country – you can also suggest another country if you have a specific interest: Algeria, Angola-Mozambique, Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam. If you’re unsure where to start your research, consider some of these things: colonial history (who, what, when, why), the process of independence, problems faced by the new nation, type of government, reaction of the population to independence and the new nation.

Social Responsibility And Its Effect On International...

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Raskolnikovs Character Development in Crime and...

Ethics is defined as moral principles that govern a person or group’s behavior. Ethics have always played a crucial role in determining different kinds of cultures and what kind of reputation a certain group of individuals holds. In North American culture, we determine our ethics as being brought up by certain standards that determine what kind of person we ought to be. By contrast, other cultures have different approaches as to what is ethically â€Å"correct† or acceptable. Ethics incremented in Russian culture for example, contrast dramatically with classic American ideals. Trust is one of the biggest clashes between what differentiates the two cultures. In America, trusting each others peers, neighbors and colleagues is a norm that is so†¦show more content†¦Born an outsider, he strongly feels that he doesn’t belong in a society that imposes certain ethical values into him. He is struggling to fit in this â€Å"Russian† state of mind. 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