Visa J-1 para estudiar la especialidad médica en USA

Visa J-1 para estudiar la especialidad mà ©dica en USA La visa J-1 permite a los mà ©dicos extranjeros graduados en facultades de medicina fuera de Canad y de Estados Unidos estudiar sus residencias o especializaciones en este à ºltimo paà ­s.   Asimismo, esta visa permite a los mà ©dicos de otros paà ­ses ingresar a Estados Unidos para realizar investigacià ³n avanzada en el mbito de la medicina. Es decir, permite adquirir conocimientos clà ­nicos y no clà ­nicos y esta diferenciacià ³n es muy importante como se ver ms adelante en relacià ³n a la regla de los dos aà ±os. Este artà ­culo explica los requisitos fundamentales para participar en este programa de visa J-1 para alien physician. Por ejemplo, quià ©n puede ser patrocinador,   requisitos de certificacià ³n y para solicitar la visa, cambios de especializacià ³n, cà ³mo llevar a la familia y, por à ºltimo, la famosa regla de los dos aà ±os y cundo no aplica o es posible pedir una excepcià ³n. Finalmente, no confundir con el programa distinto de trainee o prcticas  con visa J-1, en el que tambià ©n pueden participar mà ©dicos, ya que las reglas son distintas. Patrocinador de mà ©dicos para la visa J-1 para especialidad o residencia La Comisià ³n Educativa para Graduados Mà ©dicos Extranjeros (ECFMG, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) es el à ºnico patrocinador reconocido por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos. Y es que de entre todas las visas no inmigrante con las que es posible viajar a Estados Unidos, las J-1 de intercambio tienen, entre sus requisitos, la necesidad de contar con un patrocinador, tambià ©n conocido como esponsorizador, que tiene que estar reconocido oficialmente.   Certificacià ³n de los estudios realizados por los mà ©dicos extranjeros Antes de solicitar la visa, la ECFMG tiene que certificar que el mà ©dico extranjero interesado en una visa J-1 est preparado para participar en un programa de especializacià ³n o investigacià ³n en Estados Unidos. El proceso de certificacià ³n es largo y complejo. Entre los requisitos, ser necesario demostrar los conocimientos mà ©dicos y tambià ©n un alto nivel de inglà ©s, tanto oral como escrito, que se mide mediante los resultados obtenidos en un examen conocido como TOEFL. Tambià ©n es imprescindible aprobar una de las siguientes pruebas: Partes I y II del National Board of Medical Examiners Examinationel Foreign Medical Graduate Examination, Step I y Step IIo el Visa Qualifying Examination (VQE) Todas esas pruebas son gestionadas por ECFMG. Requisitos para solicitar la visa J-1 para mà ©dicos subcategorà ­a alien physician Una vez obtenidos el certificado de la ECFMG y otros requisitos, esta organizacià ³n emite un documento conocido como DS-2919.   Tambià ©n es necesario una declaracià ³n por escrito del gobierno del paà ­s en el que reside el mà ©dico extranjero en el que se afirma que hay una necesidad en dicho paà ­s de doctores especializados en la rama que la que se va a buscar la especializacià ³n. Asimismo, se necesita un contrato u oferta de la institucià ³n en la que se ha sido admitido para realizar la especializacià ³n. Los candidatos extranjeros y los ciudadanos estadounidenses que estudiaron Medicina fuera de EEUU son considerados IMGs. Sus oportunidades durante el proceso que se conoce como Match para ligar candidato con institucià ³n acadà ©mica/hospital son generalmente no tan buenas como las de los graduados en facultades de Estados Unidos, por lo que se recomienda venderse agresivamente con los directores de los programas que interesan para levantar cualquier sospecha que pueda recaer sobre la calidad de sus estudios previos. Una vez que se tienen todos los pasos previos completados, ya se puede solicitar la visa J-1, lo cual se hace en là ­nea completando el formulario DS-160. El tiempo de tramitacià ³n depende del consulado o embajada y tambià ©n de las circunstancias personales del solicitante. Como parte de la tramitacià ³n es necesario pagar la cuota, que no se recupera si la visa no es aprobada. Tambià ©n se pasa por una entrevista en el consulado o embajada y en algà ºn momento del proceso, que varà ­a segà ºn la ubicacià ³n, se tomarn las huellas digitales del solicitante y una foto. Como en todo tipo de visas no inmigrante, las razones por las que puede haber un rechazo de la negacià ³n son muchas, distinguià ©ndose causas que convierten a una persona en inelegible y aquellas que lo convierten en inadmisible.   Si bien en la mayorà ­a de los casos el problema puede surgir porque el candidato no demuestra suficientemente que su intencià ³n no es quedarse en Estados Unidos. Es muy importante poder probar que se va a regresar al paà ­s de origen. Aunque no hay reglas expresas sobre quà © documentos utilizar, es de gran ayuda seguir las reglas generales que se utilizan para este fin cuando se solicita una visa de turista. Visas para familiares para mà ©dicos realizando la residencia en Estados Unidos El cà ³nyuge del solicitante de la visa J-1 y sus hijos solteros que son menores de 21 aà ±os pueden acompaà ±ar al mà ©dico a Estados Unidos. Su visa es una J-2, de dependiente. Para poder solicitarla es necesario solicitar a ECFMG que extienda el patrocinio a estos familiares. Trabajar en Estados Unidos   La finalidad del mà ©dico es especializarse. Para ello obviamente debe realizar prcticas en su campo, por las que ser compensado econà ³micamente. Sin embargo, lo que no puede hacer y est estrictamente prohibido es trabajar fuera del programa. Hacer tal cosa es una violacià ³n migratoria que puede provocar la cancelacià ³n de la visa. Cambios de especialidad mà ©dica Si el mà ©dico con una visa J-1 inicia una especializacià ³n y cambia de parecer y decide que prefiera otra, puede tramitar un cambio de la misma siempre y cuando todavà ­a no tenga completado el segundo aà ±o de la especializacià ³n.   Una vez iniciado el tercer aà ±o ya no es posible ese tipo de cambios. La regla de los dos aà ±os de permanencia fuera de EEUU En principio, los mà ©dicos que participan en un programa J-1 dentro de la categorà ­a de alien physician deben salir de Estados Unidos por dos aà ±os y residir en otro paà ­s durante ese tiempo. Esto NO quiere decir que no puedan viajar a USA   como turistas, quiere decir que no pueden obtener una visa de trabajo de la familia H o de la L o una green card. Esto afecta incluso a las personas casadas de buena fe con un ciudadano americano. En principio, les aplica esa regla. Pero hay excepciones. Por ejemplo, no aplica a los mà ©dicos cuya labor en los Estados Unidos fuera de investigacià ³n, observacià ³n o enseà ±anza y no tuvieran un contacto directo con pacientes. Adems, es posible pedir un permiso conocido como waiver para que no aplica esa regla. Requisitos para la waiver de los dos aà ±os Son 4 las posibilidades para pedir la waiver a la regla de residir dos aà ±os fuera de Estados Unidos al finalizar este programa: Que el Departamento de Salud de uno de los estados solicite una waiver a nombre de un mà ©dico determinado. Hay un mximo de 30 por estado por aà ±o fiscal. Es lo que se conoce como el programa Conrad 30 waiver.Que una agencia del gobierno solicite la waiver.Que se dà © la circunstancia de que si el mà ©dico retornase a su paà ­s de origen que pudiera ser perseguido por razà ³n de su raza, religià ³n u opiniones polà ­ticas.Que estuviera casado con una persona ciudadana americana o residente permanente legal o que tuviera hijos con esos estatus y si el mà ©dico o la doctora tuviera que salir de Estados Unidos se producirà ­a una situacià ³n de extrema dureza para el familiar ciudadano o residente. Opciones para trabajar en USA como mà ©dico al finalizar la especializacià ³n   Tras finalizar el programa y cumplir la regla de los dos aà ±os, si se est obligado a cumplirla, -recordar que los mà ©dicos no clà ­nicos no estn sujetos a ella-, se puede obtener una visa de inmigrante (green card) o una de trabajo. Los mà ©dicos pueden visas L-1 de transfer o H-1B para profesionales. En cuanto a las green card, existen varios caminos para obtenerlos, incluidas las de por razà ³n de trabajo incluyendo la categorà ­a de extranjero de habilidad extraordinaria y la de residencia con waiver por razà ³n de interà ©s nacional. Tener en cuenta que en estos momentos est paralizada la opcià ³n que permità ­a a los doctores interesados en prestar servicio en el Ejà ©rcito a travà ©s del programa  Mavni, que abrà ­a las puertas a la adquisicià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a de un modo inmediato. Finalmente, los mà ©dicos se encuentran entre los profesionales mejor pagados de Estados Unidos, si bien hay notable diferencia segà ºn la especialidad, aà ±os de prctica e, incluso, ubicacià ³n. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Biography of James Watt, Modern Steam Engine Inventor

Biography of James Watt, Modern Steam Engine Inventor James Watt (January 19, 1736–August 25, 1819) was a Scottish inventor, engineer, and chemist. He developed a workable steam engine that utilized a separate condenser; this innovation made the steam engine a useful tool for a vast range of uses. In many ways, Watts invention- or rather, his improvement on an earlier invention, the Newcomen steam engine- was the technological impetus behind the Industrial Revolution. Fast Facts: James Watt Known For: Invention of the steam engineBorn: January 19, 1736 in Greenock,  Renfrewshire, Scotland, United KingdomParents: Thomas Watt, Agnes MuirheadDied: August 25, 1819 in  Handsworth, Birmingham, England, United KingdomEducation: Home educatedPublished Works:  A System of Mechanical PhilosophyAwards and Honors: Many streets and schools carry his name; statues of his likeness in Picadilly Gardens and St. Pauls CathedralSpouse(s): Margaret (Peggy) Miller, Ann MacGregorChildren: James Jr., Margaret, Gregory, Janet, AnnNotable Quote: I had gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon. I had entered the Green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte  Street and had passed the old washing house. I was thinking upon the engine at the time, and had gone as far as the herds house, when the idea came into my mind...I had not walked  farther  than the Golf  house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind. Early Life James Watt was born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock, Scotland, as the only surviving child of four of James Watt (1699–1737) and Agnes Muirhead (1901–1754). Greenock was a fishing village that during Watts lifetime became a busy town with a fleet of steamships. James Jr.s grandfather Thomas Watt (1642–1734) was a well-known mathematician and local schoolmaster. James Sr. was a prominent citizen of Greenock and a successful carpenter and ships chandler who worked at outfitting ships and working on their instruments, compasses, and quadrants. At various times, James Sr. was also the chief magistrate and treasurer of the town. Education James Watt was intelligent, but because of poor health he was unable to attend school regularly. Instead, he gained the skills he would later need in engineering and tooling by working with his father on carpentry projects. By age 6, James Watt was solving geometrical problems and conducting his earliest investigation into the nature of steam, which involved experimenting with his mothers tea kettle. In boyhood, Watt was an avid reader and found something to interest him in every book that came into his hands. When Watt was finally sent to the village school, his ill health prevented his making rapid progress; it was only when he was 13 or 14 that he began to exhibit his abilities, particularly in mathematics. His spare time was spent sketching with his pencil, carving, and working at the tool bench with wood and metal. He made many ingenious mechanical works and some beautiful models, and enjoyed repairing nautical instruments. Apprenticeship After his mother died in 1754, the 18-year-old Watt was sent to Glasgow to train as a merchant with his uncle John Muirhead. One of his mothers relatives was the chair of the Oriental Languages and Humanities department at Glasgow College, and Watt became a member of the literary society there. He also met other scholars at Glasgow who would prove influential and supportive of his career: Robert Dick, professor of natural philosophy, Robert Simpson in mathematics, and William Cullen in medicine and chemistry. It was Dick who suggested that Watt go to London to get training as a mathematics instrument maker. With a letter of introduction, Watt left for London in 1755 and began working with the instrument maker John Morgan. Watt was not officially an apprentice, but he did work on mechanical instrumentation: Morgan thought he was talented but took too long to complete his work. The job with Morgan ended in June 1756 and Dick got him a short-term position to work on an astronomical clock, reflecting telescopes, and transit instruments. Watt returned to Greenock at the end of the year, but he soon went back to Glasgow where he began a small business in quadrant-making. He was appointed mathematical instrument-maker at Glasgow College, supported by Dicks replacement John Anderson, and by Cullens replacement and chemist Joseph Black (1728–1799). Black is best known for his work on latent and specific heats and for his discovery of carbon dioxide, and he was to become a staunch supporter of Watt. Early Experimentation In 1759, John Robison, a student at Glasgow, showed Watt a model of the Newcomen steam engine and suggested it might be used to propel carriages. The Newcomen was invented and patented in 1703 by Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729), and Watt began building miniature models using tin steam cylinders and pistons attached to driving wheels by a system of gears. In his own experiments he used, at first, apothecaries trials and hollow canes for steam reservoirs and pipes, and later a Papins digester and a common syringe. The latter combination made a noncondensing engine, in which he used steam at a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. The valve was worked by hand, and James Watt saw that an automatic valve gear was needed to make a working machine. This experiment, however, led to no practical result and for the next several years, he abandoned this research. Watt stayed with the college until the 1760s, when he took up a partnership with a merchant named John Craig, financed partly with Black. One venture of theirs was producing alkali from salt- in the 18th century, alkali could only be produced from plants. Craig and Watt were one of several people looking for a way to create it chemically, an effort not achieved until 1820. Watt and Craig also worked on pottery kilns and glazes for making tin-glazed delftware. Marriage and Family In 1764, Watt married Margaret Millar, known as Peggy, a cousin he had known since they were children. They were to have five children, only two of which lived to adulthood: Margaret, born in 1767, and James III, born in 1769, who as an adult would become his fathers main support and business partner. The Newcomen Steam Engine Over the winter of 1763–1764, John Anderson at Glasgow asked Watt to repair a model of the Newcomen engine. He was able to get it running, but he was curious as to why the machine consumed so much steam and condensing water. Watts began studying the history of the steam engine and conducted experimental research into the properties of steam. The Newcomen steam engine model had a boiler that was made to scale and was incapable of furnishing enough steam to power an engine. It was about nine inches in diameter; the steam cylinder was two inches in  diameter and had a  six-inch  piston stroke. Watt made a new boiler that could measure the quantity of water evaporated and the steam condensed at every stroke of the engine. Watt soon discovered that the engine required a very small quantity of steam to heat a very large quantity of water. He immediately started to determine with precision the relative weights of steam and water in the steam cylinder when condensation took place at the down stroke of the engine. James Watt independently proved the existence of latent heat, which had been discovered by his mentor and supporter Joseph Black. Watt went to Black with his research, who shared his knowledge with Watt. Watt found that, at the boiling point, his condensing steam was capable of heating six times its weight of water used for producing condensation. Watts Separate Condenser Realizing that steam weight for weight was a vastly greater absorbent and reservoir of heat than water, Watt saw the importance of taking greater care to economize it than had previously been attempted. At first, he economized in the boiler and made boilers with wooden shells in order to prevent losses by conduction and radiation. He also used a larger number of flues than Newcomen had to secure  more complete  absorption of the heat from the furnace gases. He also covered his steam pipes with  non-conducting  materials and took every precaution to secure the complete utilization of the heat of combustion. He soon discovered that the sources of heat loss in the Newcomen engine ­ were: The dissipation of heat by the cylinder itself, which was of brass and was both a good conductor and a good radiator.The loss of heat consequent upon the necessity of cooling down the cylinder at every stroke in producing the vacuum.The loss of power due to the pressure of vapor beneath the piston, which was a consequence of the imperfect method of condensation. His first attempt at a cylinder of  non-conducting  material was made of  ­wood soaked in oil and then baked, which did increase the economy of steam. He then conducted a series of very accurate experiments upon the temperature and pressure of steam by measuring the amount of steam used at each stroke of the engine. He was able to confirm his previous conclusion that three-fourths of the heat supplied to the engine was wasted. Further Improvements After his scientific investigations, James Watt worked on improving the steam engine with an intelligent understanding of its existing defects and a knowledge of their cause. Watt soon saw that in order to reduce the losses in the working of the steam in the steam cylinder, it would be necessary to find a way to constantly keep the cylinder as hot as the steam that entered it. According to James Watt: The idea came into my mind that, as steam was an elastic body, it would rush into a vacuum, and, if a communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed steam and injection water if I used a jet, as in Newcomens engine. Two ways of doing this occurred to me: First, the water might be run off by a descending pipe, if an off jet could be got at the depth of 35 or 36 feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. The second was, to make the pump large enough to extract both water and air. He continued, When analyzed, the invention would not appear so great as it seemed to be. In the state in which I found the steam engine, it was no great effort of mind to observe that the quantity of fuel necessary to make it work would forever prevent its extensive utility. The next step in my progress was equally easy- to inquire what was the cause of the great consumption of fuel. This, too, was readily suggested, viz., the waste of fuel which was necessary to bring the whole cylinder, piston, and adjacent parts from the coldness of water to the heat of steam, no fewer than from 15 to 20 times in a minute. James Watt had invented his all-important separate condenser. He proceeded to make an experimental test of his new invention. His little model worked very well, and the perfection of the vacuum was such that the machine lifted an 18-pound weight suspended from the piston rod. He then constructed a larger model, and the result of its test confirmed the results of his first experiments. Watt Builds His Own Steam Engine It took years for Watt to figure out the details of the new steam engine. To start with, Watt had to find a way to prevent the condenser from filling with water. He tried several approaches, including an air pump, which relieved the condenser of the water and air which collected in the  condenser and lessened the vacuum. He next substituted oil and tallow for the water used to lubricate the piston, keeping the steam tight and preventing the cooling of the cylinder. Another cause of refrigeration of the cylinder and consequent waste of power in its  operation was the entrance of air, which followed the piston down the cylinder at each stroke, cooling its interior by its contact. The inventor prevented this from happening by covering the top of the cylinder and surrounding the whole cylinder with an external casing, or steam jacket, that allowed the steam from the boiler to pass around the steam cylinder and press on the upper surface of the piston. After building his larger experimental engine, Watt rented a room in an old deserted cottage. There, he worked with mechanic Folm Gardiner. Watt had just met John Roebuck, a wealthy physician, who had, with other Scotch capitalists, recently founded the celebrated Carron Iron Works. Roebuck began to support Watts efforts financially and Watt frequently wrote to Roebuck  describing  his progress. In  August 1765, he tried the small  engine and wrote Roebuck that he had good success, although the machine was very imperfect, and informed Roebuck that he was starting to make the larger model. In  October 1765, he finished the large steam engine. The engine, while ready for trial, was still far from perfect. It nevertheless did good work for such a crude machine. Financial and Personal Setbacks Unfortunately, by 1765, James Watt was reduced to poverty, and, after borrowing considerable sums from friends, he finally had to seek employment in order to provide for his family. During a span of about two  years, he supported himself as a civil engineer, surveying and managing the building of several canals in Scotland and exploring coal fields in the neighborhood of Glasgow for the magistrates of the city. He did not, however, entirely give up his invention. In 1767, Roebuck assumed Watts liabilities to the amount of  1,000 British pounds and agreed to provide more capital in exchange for  two-thirds  of Watts patent. Another engine was built with a steam cylinder seven or eight inches in diameter, which was finished in 1768. This worked sufficiently well to induce the partners to ask for a patent, and the specifications and drawings were completed and presented in 1769. Watt also built and set up several Newcomen engines, partly, perhaps, to make himself more thoroughly familiar with the practical details of engine building. Meantime, he prepared plans for and built a moderately large engine of his own new type. Its steam cylinder was 18 inches in diameter, and the stroke of the piston  was 5 feet. This engine was built at  Kinneil and was finished in  September 1769. It was not all satisfactory in either its construction or its operation. The condenser was a surface condenser composed of pipes somewhat like those used in his first little  model and did not prove to be satisfactorily tight. The steam piston leaked seriously, and repeated trials only served to make its imperfections more evident. He was assisted with financial and moral support by both Joseph Black and John  Roebuck, but  he felt strongly about the risks he ran of involving his friends in serious losses and became very despondent. Writing to Black, Watt said: Of all things in life, there is nothing more foolish than inventing; and probably the majority of inventors have been led to the same opinion by their own experiences. Partnership With Matthew Boulton In 1768, James Watt traveled to London to get his patent submitted, and on the way he met Matthew Boulton. Boulton was the owner of a Birmingham manufacturing company known as the Soho Manufactory, which made small metal goods. He  had inherited his fathers business and built it up considerably. He and his business were very well known in the mid-18th century English enlightenment movement. Boulton was a good scholar,  with a considerable knowledge of languages and science- particularly mathematics- despite having left school as a boy to go to work in his fathers shop. In the  shop, he soon introduced a number of valuable improvements and he was always on the lookout for other ideas that might be introduced into his business. He was also a member of the famous Lunar Society of Birmingham, a group of men who met to discuss natural philosophy, engineering, and industrial development together: other members included the discoverer of oxygen Joseph Priestley, Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin), and the experimental potter Josiah Wedgewood. Watt joined the group after he became Boultons partner. A flamboyant and energetic scholar, Boulton made the acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin in 1758, who then visited Soho. By 1766, these distinguished men were corresponding, discussing among other things the applicability of steam power to various useful purposes. They designed a new steam engine and Boulton built a model, which was sent to Franklin and exhibited by him in London. They had yet to become aware of the existence of James Watt. When Boulton met Watt in 1768, he liked his engine and decided to buy an interest in the patent. With Roebucks consent, Watt offered Boulton a  one-third  interest. Although there were several complications, eventually Roebuck proposed to transfer to Matthew Boulton  one-half  of his proprietorship in Watts inventions for the sum of 1,000 pounds. This proposal was accepted in  November 1769. Working Steam Engines In  November 1774, Watt finally announced to his old partner Roebuck that he had made a successful trial of the Kilmeil engine. He did not write with his usual enthusiasm and extravagance; instead, he simply wrote: The fire engine I have invented is now going, and answers much better than any other that has yet been made, and I expect that the invention will be very beneficial to me. One reason for his lack of enthusiasm was that his wife had died during childbirth the previous year, in September 1773. Heartsick, Watt buried himself in work. From mid-February 1774 he was working on thermometers and barometers. He ended his civil engineering business in Scotland (in part because of a financial crisis in Scotland) and in May he journeyed south to Birmingham, where he joined the Lunar Society. In 1775, he went into a full-time partnership with Matthew Boulton. From that point forward, the firm of Boulton and Watt was able to produce a range of working engines with real-world applications. New innovations and patents were taken out for machines that could be used for grinding, weaving, and milling. Steam engines were put into use for transportation on both land and water. Nearly every successful and important invention that marked the history of steam power for many years originated in the Boulton and Watt workshops. Retirement and Death Watts work with Boulton transformed him into a figure of international stature among men of letters. His 25-year-long patent brought him wealth; and he and Boulton became leaders in the technological Enlightenment in England, with a solid reputation for innovative engineering. Watt married Ann Macgregor in 1776 and they had two children (Gregory and Jessy), both of whom would die young. James Watt Jr., his son from his first wife, survived his father and went on to have a role in the continuing English Enlightenment. As a result of his partnership with Matthew Boulton, James Watt became a very wealthy man, building an elegant mansion known as Heathfield House in Handsworth,  Staffordshire. He retired in 1800 and spent the rest of his life in leisure and traveling to visit friends and family. He died on August 25, 1819, at Heathfield. He was buried in the graveyard of  St Marys Church in Handsworth. Legacy In a very meaningful way, Watts inventions spurred on the Industrial Revolution and innovations of the modern age, ranging from automobiles and trains to factories and the social issues that evolved as a result. In addition, Watts name has been attached to streets, museums, and schools. His story has inspired books, movies, and works of art, including statues in Piccadilly Gardens and St. Pauls Cathedral. On the statue at St. Pauls are engraved the words: James Watt...enlarged the resources of his country, increased the power of man, and rose to an eminent place among the most illustrious followers of science and the real benefactors of the world. Sources Jones, Peter M. Living the Enlightenment and the French Revolution: James Watt, Matthew Boulton, and Their Sons. The Historical Journal 42.1 (1999): 157–82. Print.Hills, Richard L. Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Miller, David Philip. Puffing Jamie: The Commercial and Ideological Importance of Being a ‘Philosopher’ in the Case of the Reputation of James Watt (1736–1819). History of Science 38.1 (2000): 1–24. Print.The Life and Legend of James Watt: Collaboration, Natural Philosophy, and the Improvement of the Steam Engine. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.  Pugh, Jennifer S., and John Hudson. The Chemical Work of James Watt, F.R.S. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 40.1 (1985): 41–52. Print.Russell, Ben. James Watt: Making the World Anew. London: Science Museum, 2014.  Wright, Michael. James Watt: Musical Instrument Maker. The Galpin Soci ety Journal 55 (2002): 104–29. Print.

Review of Financial Statements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Review of Financial Statements - Essay Example In this case, also all type of liabilities accounts i.e. current and non current liabilities accounts will be affected. For example, accounts purchases, sundry current liabilities, interest payable, bank loans, long term debt etc 2) The financial statements which will show the impact of the transaction at the time of merge will be balance sheet and cash flow statements. Since in merger a firm acquires another firm therefore balance sheet will record the changes in the assets as well as the liabilities of the firm and the resulting changes in them. Another financial statement which will be affected by this is cash flow statement which will record the movement of any cash paid to the owners/shareholders as the consideration for the merger. (Warren, Reeve, & Duchac, 2008) It is also important to note that the income statement may also be affected if acquiring firm has to expense out some earlier losses of the acquiring firm through provisioning. However, this may not be

Moment and equilibrium Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Moment and equilibrium - Lab Report Example The aim of the experiment is to verify the equilibrium of force on a beam experimentally and analytically using the concepts and equilibrium and finding the reactions of the left and right weights (Lee, 2010). Taking measurements by several people would mechanically give dissimilar values since each individual may stretch the string by diverse tension. To minimize is by stipulating the circumstances that could lead to the error. Taking into consideration of errors presented by the instant working environment. There is need to take into account for or shield the experiment from shakings, drafts, variations in temperature, electronic sound or other effects from neighboring apparatus (Lee, 2010). This error can happen when there is some length or distance between the measuring balance and the indicator used to attain a measurement. If the viewers eye is not directly aligned with the indicator and scale, the interpretation may be extraordinary (Lee,

The Advantages Of Using DFIG

The Advantages Of Using DFIG In addition to its stator, the DFIGs rotor is also connected to the grid using a power converter (Picture 3). This type is very common for wind turbines as it offers certain advantages compared to other types: It can operate like a synchronous generator and at variable speed, although its stator is directly connected to the grid. The converter can adequately control the voltage (phase and magnitude) that is applied to the rotor and as a consequence control the magnetic fields frequency or speed. It actually forms an AC excitation with a variable frequency, just like the DC excitation used in synchronous generators. This operation gives the DFIG the benefits of a synchronous generator. These benefits include the separate control of reactive and active power, or the control of the wind turbines power factor. The DFIG wind turbines are better than other designs in terms of grid compatibility. It can operate at variable speed, sub- or super synchronously. The optimum speed can be chosen by adjusting the frequency and phase of the voltage that is applied to the rotor, and is such that maximum power is obtained by the wind, in different wind speeds. Since it can operate as synchronous generator, a major advantage of large DFIG wind turbines is that they can contribute to the systems stability after a fault occurs. However, this relies heavily on the control options given by the power converter. Moreover, A DFIG wind turbine can generate reactive power even when the mechanical part is not operating and in not delivering active power. Relative to other variable speed generators, DFIGs power converter is rated at lower power (i.e. about 30% of the wind turbines rated power), since only part of the total power delivered by the wind turbine is transferred through the converter. This makes the wind turbine cheaper and lighter. The power mentioned above, can be either delivered by the rotor (when the turbine rotates with a higher than the synchronous speed), or absorbed (when its speed is below the sync speed). This double mode gives the DFIG the ability to operate at speeds below or above even by 50% of the sync speed, although actually lower variations are chosen. Compared to other generators with variable speed, which use external rotor resistances to allow variable speed, DFIG are more energy efficient, since there is little power dissipated in the converter. DFIG can be accurately controlled due to the fact that the power converter can adjust both the magnitude and phase of the voltage applied to the rotor. This attribute, combined with pitch-control in wind turbines offers the operator more accurate power control, especially in high winds where high power output can cause severe damage to the equipment. Finally DFIG shares the benefits of synchronous and inductive generators regarding its contribution to power systems stability. Appropriate control can improve the damping of power variations in the system, without compromising voltage control. +voltage control Picture 1 Active Management in the distribution network [4], [5], [6] The dispersed nature of renewable resources necessitates their connection at the distribution network, which was designed in order to convey power from high to low voltage. Now, with the introduction of renewable electricity sources, the power can follow any direction, affecting the power and voltage quality as well as the security of the system. Therefore considerable amounts of money should be spent for their upgrade, if the optimum renewable potential is to be achieved. Another, less expensive approach is the transition from the networks traditional passive operation to their active management. Under active management approach, new control and communication technologies are incorporated into the system and allow the operator to control in real time the voltage, the power flows and even the fault levels. The main options under active management are: Power flow management The risks regarding the network power flows must be sufficiently eliminated. The possibility of the distributed generators to deliver power above the systems ratings-capacity can significantly threat the systems operation. This is a serious issue, especially in case of a circuit outage. The power flow management protects the systems parts taking into account their nominal capacity. Voltage control The voltage at a bus is affected by the real and reactive power on that bus as well as the R and X values of the line. The voltage change at that bus is approximately equal to. The most significant issue accruing from the introduction of distributed generators at the distribution networks is the voltage rise at the connected bus. The operator can choose appropriate R and X values but this would require an expensive network upgrade. The control of P and Q is a less expensive option, and this is why it is preferred. The main actions usually taken are: On-load transformer tapping: The operator might reduce/increase the voltage at the primary substation reducing/increasing all the subsequent voltages. Nevertheless, in case of reducing the voltage, a possible generator disconnection might drive the voltage below its allowable limit. Power factor or/and voltage control: see question 4 Reactive power compensation: Appropriate devices (capacitor banks, STACOM etc) can be connected on critical buses, so that they deliver/absorb reactive power and fix the voltage profile. Generation curtailment: another way to mitigate a voltage rise, would be to curtail real power generation from the distributed generators. However, this sets a significant constraint in the renewable energy that can be exploited. Fault level management : see below Load management Reducing or shifting adjustable loads can alleviate the pressure on the networks operation, especially in case of very low renewable generation. Power quality management The operator exploits various capabilities at the generators, loads or other special devices to maintain the powers high quality in terms of harmonics, voltage disturbances etc. Power Factor vs Voltage Control [7], [8], [9] The dominant negative impact of connecting generators in the distribution network is the distortion of the voltage profile. The simplest, but at the same time the most expensive, solution for this problem is the upgrade of the local grid. However, there are more efficient ways, (borrowed by the operation of the transmission networks) that could allow for larger DG penetration without big distortions at the voltage profile. Two of them, concerning the generators operation, are: Power factor control: the generator operates at a constant power factor. The reactive follows the real power output so that their ratio remains constant. This kind of operation was required by the distribution network operator (DNO) in the context of the fit and forget rationale, with which all the low voltage networks were initially designed. The major advantage of this method is that it does not disrupt the operation of other regulation devices, such as OLTC. However, it may have a negative impact on the voltage at the connected bus, since it tends to contribute to the voltage variation which is influenced by the changes in power flows. As a consequence, this approach limits the total generation capacity that can be connected on the network. Voltage control: the generator adjusts its reactive power output so that the voltage at the connection bus remains within the allowable limits. This adjustment is done according to the real power output and the voltage drop or rise occurring at the bus. Obviously, the generators power factor is not constant anymore, although an upper and a lower limit would normally apply. The DNO are not very keen on allowing generators to operate in that way, since this operation could considerably affect the operation of other voltage regulation devices, such as OLTC transformers. Moreover, if a small generator tries to correct a high voltage change, it might need to set its reactive power output at a critical high or low level. This sort of dangerous operation close to the thermal or overcurrent limits entails a significant increase in the maintenance cost, or even worse, it can activate the protections and cause a sudden trip. A combination of the two approaches described above is considered the best solution regarding the optimum operation of a distributed generator. The main idea is that the generator operates with a constant power factor until the point where the voltage at the connected bus reaches the upper or lower allowable limit. At this point, the power factor control is deactivated, letting the generator to adjust its reactive power output and fix the voltage. Again, the power factor must be kept within its the allowable limits. When the voltage returns within its limits, the power factor control is reactivated. The consequences of new DG capacity on network fault levels and protection [4] The connection of distributed generation, using either synchronous or inductive generators, causes an increase in the systems fault levels, owing to the additional generation that could feed a potential fault current. This is especially the case at the very edges and weak parts of the distribution network, where the renewable generators are usually connected. The new fault levels might exceed the rating of the existing protections. Such an implication could cause significant damage to the protection equipment and set the systems security at high risk or ultimately incur supply interruptions. But most importantly could set personnels life in to severe danger. Therefore, every time a new distributed generator is connected, the fault levels must be re-examined and wherever is deemed necessary, protections must be upgraded. In some cases it might be necessary to upgrade the respective part of the network (reduce the R and X values new lines or/and transformers), which would usually requ ire significant amount of money. Nonetheless, in the context of the active management operation of the distribution network, the operator can take some alternative measures: Advanced converter technology: the use of advanced power inverters, makes a generators contribution to the fault current much lower. The more advanced a converter, the higher its cost. Network reconfiguration: changing the topology of the network could change the fault level at some buses. This operation is already available in most of the networks for maintenance purposes. Is Limiter: a device that can instantly increase the systems impedance (lower fault level) in case of an incident, but it needs replacement after each use. Sequential switching: the contribution at the fault current by one or a team of distributed generators can be isolated in case of a fault in a different section. The need for active power balancing in networks with high penetration of renewable energy resources In order for the frequency of a system to be maintained, the total real power generation must always be equal to the total real power load and losses. A distortion of this balance could cause a frequency deviation beyond the allowable limits and hence, damage the equipment and the loads. Therefore, it is of major importance that the system operator must always retain the active power balance. Most of the prevailing renewable energy resources, such as wind or solar, have an intermittent behaviour and their output relies on the weather/climate conditions and hence, cannot be controlled. Although there were significant advances in the weather forecasting, errors are still present. Moreover, any sudden incidents that could trip a big part of the total generation (not only renewable) could also contribute to a real power unbalance. Adding to this the fact that the demand can also vary, the large penetration of renewable resources increases considerably the risk for the systems stability. The main techniques that a system operator can use in order to maintain the power balance are: Storage: Large (compressed air, hydro-pump storage, flywheels etc) or smaller (EV etc) storage facilities can contribute to the real power balancing. They can store energy when the renewable generation exceeds the total load and deliver it back to the network when the total generation is not sufficient to meet the demand. Some storage technologies are better than others in terms of their performance, however all of them are quite capable of quickly adjusting their output to support the systems frequency. Nonetheless, most of the storage technologies are still very expensive. Pump storage, a cheaper option, is naturally constrained, while the massive introduction of EV is not feasible in the foreseeable future. Demand Side Management: The active power equation has two sides. Available for adjusting or shifting demand could adequately contribute to the systems stability when the renewable sources are lower than expected, if appropriate incentives are given to the consumers. Dispatchable units: The unbalances risk that might emerge by the large penetration of renewable energy resources could be offset by large and fast, in terms of start-up and output, generating units, such as hydro or gas plants. However, hydro plants are naturally constrained and gas power plants are still causing carbon emissions, albeit fewer than the coal generators. Interconnections: Interconnections between large electricity grids could significantly reduce the risk associated with the large penetration of renewable energy sources. Each system could either absorb or deliver real power from its counterpart depending on its total generation and demand. DC interconnections are more common, since they can transfer more real power and isolate the two systems in terms of frequency control, although they are more expensive than conventional AC interconnections.

Decolonization – Congo

Why was process of decolonization peaceful in some countries and violent in others? (Before Independence) Brief historical background of colonization? (Historical Context) * What ignited calls for independence from colonial rule in __________ (your country)? A: Elections were held in rural areas(small cities) for reform and democratization of local government. 1958 was a year of vigorous political discussion at issues of society in Belgian Congo. The whole turning point of their advocacy for independence was during January 4-6 in 1959. In January 4, a riot broke out in Leopoldville due to the fact that an Abako meeting had been banned.This abrupt disorder for two days as European shops were broken and burned with over 40 people killed. The administration had political concession meaning that Belgium handed over independence to Congo. On January 13, the administration released a statement that they would slowly change into independence. The nationalist urged the colonial government to have an early date for independence. From this statement, issues about the independence of Congo sprang quickly. Political parties made huge promises that were illogical in order to gain favor of the people.Some parties requested for a faster date while others thought of holding the situation slowly. The government slowly began to lose control of rural areas. The government feared of catastrophe, decided to decolonize as quick as possible. The Congolese leaders aimed for a five-year transition to independence but the Belgians enforced that the date of independence would be of 30 June 1960. According to The Making of Modern Africa, The first national elections held in May was looked as a disaster. After the end of World War 2, the Congo was able to participate in political issues. What methods did the â€Å"nationalists† use to achieve independence? To what extent were these methods effective? How did the colonial nation respond to the effort of the nationalists? A: Patrice L umumba launched THE FIRST NATIONWIDE POLITICAL PARTY, the Congo National Movement in 1958. They caused outrages in order to erupt instability to the country. Huge riots were caused by the hunger for independence by the people of Congo. The Belgian authorities prohibited a political/cultural party named ‘ABAKO’ which was slowly gaining power in the lower part of Congo.This led to riots for a span of three days and the Belgian government announced that they would put more Congolese into the government (for moderate nationalists) at a small scale in hopes of satisfying the demands. (Made a promise of eventual independence to extreme nationalists). But suddenly there was a surge of political activity. The nationalist’s demand soon grew as fifty political parties were registered competing and Belgian Congo was beyond control of the Belgian administration. * When did _________ (your country) achieve independence? Who ended up in power? Transition) A: The Republic of Co ngo achieved independence on June 30, 1960. From January 18-27, 1960, an event known as the ‘The Roundtable Conference’ was held in Brussels. Different Congolese parties attended the meeting to discuss the transition into independence. There were two pivotal leaders, Joseph Kasa-Vubu as President and Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister. To what extent were problems facing newly independent countries a legacy of colonial rule? * What was the condition of the country upon independence? (Identify problems) A: Coming from colonial rule, the Congolese had minimal knowledge to manage a huge country.Tribal leaders had more power than the government, which led them to have an unstable state. After the departure of the Belgium administration, there were barely any bureaucrats left in the country. The first Congolese graduate ever was only in 1956. The country was at a very unstable state with the power mostly to individual tribes separated from other tribes as well. (No unity) * W ere the problems a result of the colonial rulers? (Was it the fault of the colonial power? ) A: The Belgians considered Congo as a child meaning that both countries acted as a ‘parent and child’ relationship.This is called paternalism. The Belgians mainly supervised Congo and the Congo had no part in legislation. The Congolese only collected tax from the citizens. How could a child start working if he/she hasn’t had any education. This was the kind of situation in between Belgium and Congo. What ways did the Cold War complicate the process of  decolonization and/or post-independence? * Did ideology or the US/USSR conflict play a role in the process to achieve independence OR create problems for countries after they achieved independence? (If so, how significant? A: The Congo Crisis was a period of disorder from 1960 – 1966. The Katanga province threatened to leave Congo because the Belgians were interested in business and there were over 6000 Belgian tro ops with most of the European population under the leadership of Moise Tshombe. The province was declared as the State of Katanga in July 11 1960. Patrice Lumumba went to Soviet Union for troops to enforce the Katanga province. Feeling afraid, President Kasa-Vubu requested help from the United States that turns this into a proxy war as well. The US saw this attempt to spread their ideology in sub-Saharan Africa.The U. S. therefore wanted to change the leader in The Republic of Congo. It’s kind of odd how Patrice Lumumba, the prime minister and President Kasa-Vubu who were both in the same parties already had arguments as soon as Congo gained their independence. Source Evaluation: http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/59224/Belgian-Congo First and foremost, this website is trustworthy due to their long history of releasing books with accurate facts. This huge company consists of about 100 editors and 4,4000 contributors who are professors, being an expert at their respec tive subjects.It is also regarded as one of the most academic encyclopedias of the English language. It has also received numerous awards meaning its value is high. This is a secondary source, which obtained sources from contributors and re-word. The purpose of this article is simply to inform everyone without any intent to persuade or convince a person as the audience is not targeted as well. The limitations in this article is unclear, coming from a website from an anonymous author without his nationality is hard to determine whether this article I biased or not.But this website is trustworthy enough not to input biased opinions. A historian would use this comfortably because Britannica is one of the most popular websites used by millions of people. â€Å"Belgian Congo (historical Region, Africa). † Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n. d. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . Source List: â€Å"Africa: Belgian Colonies – HISTORY OF BELGIAN COLONIZATION, THE ADM INISTRATION OF CONGO BY THE BELGIANS (1908-1960). † Africa: Belgian Colonies. N. p. n. d. Web. 02 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Belgian Congo (historical Region, Africa). † Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n. d. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Belgian Congo. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 Feb. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Congo Crisis. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 May 2012. Web. 01 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Decolonization of Africa. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Oct. 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Encyclop? dia Britannica. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 11 May 2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012. . As a class, we will be holding a seminar to discuss the questions above. In order to discuss these questions, you need to know how the process of decolonization worked in specific countries.As a group, choose one of the countries from the following list and begin research into the independence, decolonization, and colonial le gacy of that country – you can also suggest another country if you have a specific interest: Algeria, Angola-Mozambique, Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam. If you’re unsure where to start your research, consider some of these things: colonial history (who, what, when, why), the process of independence, problems faced by the new nation, type of government, reaction of the population to independence and the new nation.

Social Responsibility And Its Effect On International...

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